Late Travel company (LT) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Late Travel company (LT) - Research Paper Example DBMS uses various models including relational model. DBMS utilizes query language to get information. A query language can analyze and update data. It takes care of the security of the database. Unauthorized users are prevented from viewing, updating etc of the database. Modeling language, query language, data structure and transaction mechanism are the main parts of DBMS.With the help of 'Data Manipulation' subsystem the user can add, delete or change information in a database. Relational Databases are so popular in that they are the absolute choice for storage of financial records, logistical information, manufacturing in formation, personal information etc. The software is Relational Database Management System. (RDMS) Constraint restricts the domain of an attribute and also the data to be stored in relations. . SQL makes use of 'check constraints'. There are also domain constraints as every attribute has a related domain. , Normalization is an integral part of relational model. It checks duplication of data and simultaneously loss of data integrity. The Relational Model has three parts. Structures are objects which store the data. Data has to remain the same during all the operations. It should not get disturbed during transfer, storage and retrieval. Data Integrity takes care that the data will always be consistent, correct and accessible. It remains faithful to its source. Referential integrity is the mos... It checks duplication of data and simultaneously loss of data integrity. The Relational Model has three parts. Structures are objects which store the data. Operations manipulate the structure and the data it contains. They follow a set of rules. Integrity rules decide the operations on the data and structure. In fact it protects both. Data has to remain the same during all the operations. It should not get disturbed during transfer, storage and retrieval. Data Integrity takes care that the data will always be consistent, correct and accessible. It remains faithful to its source. However in the internet, the data is broken into packets, before being transferred. Data integrity ensures that, even then the data is put back to shape and recovered. Data integrity can be disturbed by malfunctioning of hardware, attack of software applications by viruses. Human error in data entry is another cause. Referential integrity is the most common. In this, the errors in the relationship between a foreign key and primary key are avoided. Proper use of integrity constraints will prevent end user from writing invalid matters. Also unauthorized persons cannot alter the data. 'Server enforced data integrity' is the most dependable data integrity. RDBMS is considered the authority to accept or reject data. Normalize: It is advisable to normalize the database while designing a relational database. Normalizing to 'Third Normal Form' is always recommended. It means, the attributes in each table should depend on the key. Normalization takes care that errors in data input at are reduced. It removes excess data from records. Data model is an integrated collection of concepts for describing relationship between various data, constraints on

Individual Psychology Theory of Adler

Individual Psychology Theory of Adler ALFRED ADLER AND INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY Introduction Biography Alfred Adler was born in February 7, 1870 in the suburbs of Vienna. He was the third child and second son of a Jewish grain merchant. During his childhood, Alfred made developed rickets which limited from walking. When he was five years he nearly died from pneumonia. During this age Alfred decided to become a doctor. He was an average student and preferred playing outdoors. He was popular, outgoing and active and was known for his efforts of outdoing his elder brother. Alfred received a degree in medicine from University of Vienna in the year 1895. During his college he was attached to socialist group of students among which he met his wife Rassia Timofeyewna Epstein a social activist and an intellectual from Russia and studied in Vienna. They married in the year 1897 and they finally had four children of which tow became psychiatrists. Alfred started his medical career as an apthamologist but soon changed general practice establishing his office in the lower class region of Vienna. His clients comprised of circus people (Bottome, 1998, p. 5). He changed his career to psychiatry and in the year 1907 he was invited in a Freuds group discussion. After writing papers on organic inferiority which was compatible to views of Freud, Alfred wrote the first paper on aggression instinct which was not approved by Freud. He wrote another paper on childrens feelings of inferiority which suggested that Freuds sexual ideas should be taken more metaphorically than literally. Adler was named the president of Viennese Analytic Society by Freud and a co-editor of newsletter of the organization; he did not stop his criticism. They organized a debate between Freuds and Adlers supporters leading to Adler having nine members of the organization resigning to form another organization of the Society for Free Psychoanalysis. This organization became the Society for Individual Psychology in the next year. During the First World War, Alfred served as a physician for the Austrian Army in the childrens hospital and on Russian front. He witnessed the f irst damage did by the war which changed his thought increasingly to the concept of social interest. Alfred felt that, humanity should survive and it had to change its ways. After the First World War, Adler was involved in different projects like clinics attached to schools of the nation and teachers training. In 1926, Alfred went to the United States to lecture and he finally accepted a visiting position at Long Island College of Medicine. Alder and his family left Vienna forever in 1934. Alfred died of heart attack during his series of lecturer at Aberdeen University on May 28, 1937 (Way, 1956, p. 25). The Theory Adler suggested a motivating force or a single drive behind all peoples experiences and behaviors. By the time his theory had gelled almost in mature form, Alfred named the motivating force striving for perfection. This is the peoples desire to fulfill their potentials, come closer and closer to their ideals. This is almost familiar to the more popular self-actualization of ideas. Ideal and perfection are words which are troublesome but they are positive goals. Should not people be striving for the ideal? In psychology, people are given instead a suggestion. Ideals and perfection are practically by definition and things which cannot be reached. Many people live very painful and very sad lives while trying to be perfect. Alfred sees a negative type of idealism as a pervasive of more positive understanding. Striving for perfection was not Adlers first phrase but he used it to refer to his single motivating force. Adlers earliest phrase was aggression drive referred to the reaction peo ple have when other drives like what they want to eat, sexual satisfaction, get things done, are frustrated and be loved. This can be better called assertiveness drive since people tend to think of aggression as negative and physical. It was the idea of Adler on aggression drive which caused disagreement between him and Freud (Way, 1992, p. 102). Freud was afraid that, this disagreement would detract them from the important position of sex drive in the psychoanalytic theory. Regardless of Freuds dislike on the idea, he introduced something alike later in his life known as the death instinct. Adler also used striving to overcome or compensation to refer to the basic motivation. Since all people have problems, inferiorities and short-comings, Adler felt in his earlier writings that peoples personalities can be accounted for in a way which would compensate or to overcome the problems. The idea still plays a significant role in Adlers theory. Adler used masculine protest after noting something pretty obvious on his culture in which boys were given more preference than girls. Boys desperately wanted to be though of be thought as aggressive, strong and in control. This argument was based on the notion that, men were somehow better than women. They thought that, men had the power and education which is basically the motivation and talent required to do better things which women cannot (Handlbauer, 1998, p. 95). Adler did not see the mens assertiveness and success as a result of instinctive dominance. According to him, there was a reflection of the fact that boys were encouraged to be assertive in life which discouraged girls. Both girls and boys start their life with protest. Many people misunderstood Adler meaning that men were more assertive which led to limit of the use of his phrase. Adler also used the phrase striving for superiority. Use of this phrase reflected the philosophical root of Adlers ideas. Later Adler used striving for superiority more to refer to the neurotic or unhealthy striving. Adler in his life tried to get the concept down to the psychological level. Jan Smuts influenced Adler an approach which is known as holism. Adler decided to call his approach to psychology as individual psychology. Individual literary meant un-divided. Rather than talking about personal personality, with a traditional sense on internal traits, dynamics, structures and so on, he preferred talk ing about style of life which refers to how one deals with how they live their life, interpersonal relations and how they deal with problems. According to Adler, â€Å"the style of life of a tree is the individuality of a tree expressing itself and molding itself in an environment. People realize a style when they view it against an environment background different from what they expect since each tree has its mechanical pattern to respond to the environment (Hoffman, 1994, p. 52). Adler differed again with Freud on lifestyle. Adler viewed motivation as a matter of moving towards the future instead of being driven to the past. People are driven towards their goals, their purpose and their ideals which are known as teleology. Moving things from the past to the future has some remarkable effects. Social interest was another idea on the significance of striving for perfection. On his holism, it is easy to see that everyone who is striving for perfection can hardly do so without considering the social environment. Since people are social animals, they dont exist much less they strive without others and even most determined people-hater forms with detestation in a social context. According to him, social concern was not simply inborn or learned but a combination of both. This is to some extent an innate demonstrated on how babies and small children show sympathy on others without being taught. The aim of Adler was to avoid the idea of social interest which is a ver sion of extraversion. Some people express their social concern through a behavior of being friendly and slapping. Adler meant social concern in terms of feeling in terms of certain social behaviors but in a much broader sense as caring for the community, family, humanity and community even for life. Social concern is a matter of being helpful to others. Lack of social concern is a definition of all failures like drunkards, psychotics, problem children and criminals among others because they lack social interest (Adler, 1999, p. 34). Adler changed psychological determinance grounds from to sex to libido. He has special prominence to societal factors. He argued that, an individual has to struggle or deal with three forces known as love-related, societal and vocational forces. This disagreement determines the final nature of personality. He based his theories on the development of pre-adulthood of individual. His psychology is parallel wit the humanistic psychology of Abraham Maslow who acknowledged Adlers influence on his theories. Both humanistic psychology and individual psychology hold that, individuals who are human beings are the best determinants of their own desires, needs, growth and interests. The theory of defeat, compensation and over-compensation were derived by Adler. According to him, individuals derive their personality characteristics from the important external factors. Individual characters are formed by their reaction on their influence to compensation, resignation and over-compensation. In com pensation, when an individual suffers from any difficulty, their main objective is to bring those drawbacks to an end making them inferior to others. Those with the potential to this are successful in their lives on both individual and social basis (Dreikurs, 1994, p. 127). Resignation is for those individuals who give their drawbacks and become reconciled to them. These kinds of people are in many. The attitude of the world toward them is cool and quite uninterested understanding. Over-compensation is where some people become so obsessed with the idea of recompense for their problems. External factors are important in formation of characters. Alfred holds the main motives of human behavior and thought as individual strive for power and superiority partly in compensation for their inferiority feeling. Each individual is unique according to this view and their personality structure with the unique goals and striving ways finds an expression on their style of life which is the product of their creativity. However, individuals cannot be considered as different from the society, all important problems including general human relations, love, and occupation problems are social (Watts, 2003, p. 67). Adlers theory led to explanation of the psychological abnormality and normality although the normal person who has a well developed social interest will recompense by determining on the helpful side of life which is by contributing to the common inferiority feeling. The neurotically disposed individual is characterized by increased superiority feeling, exaggeration, underdeveloped social interest, and uncooperative superiority goal which are signs anxiety and less open aggression. This person solves problems in a private fashion, self-centered resulting in failure. All kind of maladjustments share this collection. Therapy involves offering the patient with insight on mistaken life-style through materials furnished by him in the interview with a psychiatric (Slavik and Carlson, 2005, p. 241). According to Adler, inferiority people pull towards perfection, fulfillment and self-actualization. Failures ends up being unfulfilled, being far from self-actualization and badly imperfect. Due to lack of self interest or putting something in positive form people will be excessively self-interested. According to him, being besieged by inferiority is by feeling competent, doing well, affording to think of others. All individuals suffer from inferiority like Adler suffered from organ inferiority. Many people react to organic inferiorities through compensation. People make their deficiencies in a different way. The inferiority organ can be strengthened and become stringer than others. Individuals can psychologically compensate their problems by developing particular skills or even specific personality styles. Many people are not in a position to handle their problems and they live lives of silent depression. People optimism and society which is up-to-beat seriously undervalues their n umbers. Many people have psychological inferiorities. There is also general type of inferiority mainly the natural inferiority mainly found in children. Children are naturally weaker, smaller, intellectually competent and less social compared to adults around them. Children have something in common. They have the desire to grow up, be adult and be big. This type of compensation is in fact similar to striving for perfection. Many children have the feeling that, other people always are better than them. If an individual is besieged by inferiority forces whether it is hurting the body, those people around are holding the contempt or the general difficulties are growing up. This develops inferiority complex (Adler, 1964, p. 273). According to Adler, due to inadequate social interest, different types can be differentiated using energy levels. The ruling kind which is from childhood is characterized by the tendency to be quite dominant and aggressive over others. Their energy which involves the strength to strive for their personal power is great and they push anything or anybody getting in their way. Leaning type is among those people who are sensitive and have developed a shell around themselves which is protects them but they have to depend on others to deal with problems in their life. These individuals have low level of energy and they became reliant. When they are overwhelmed, they develop what they normally think of neurotic symptoms which depend on individual lifestyle details. The avoiding type has the lowest energy level and they survive by basically avoiding life. When they are pushed to restrictions they become psychotic which finally retreats to their own worlds. The socially useful type is for th e healthy person who has both energy and social interest. Without energy, one cannot really have self interest since they are not in a position in fact do anything for anyone (Adler, 1999, p. 54). The individual psychology of Alder has some basic assumptions. The individual psychology is a system of practices and theories which is established upon cognitive-behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic and existential principles. â€Å"All behavior has social meaning.† Adler was different from assumption of Freud that â€Å"human behavior is motivated by sexual instinct†. Assumption of Adler is that human behavior is aggravated by social desires and human beings are intrinsically social beings. Adler substituted interpersonal relationship form for interpersonal â€Å"id-ego-superego† personality pattern of Freud. Alder gives a humanistic and optimistic view of life which considers human beings as greatly in a position to co-operate in order to live jointly and struggle for self development, contribution to ordinary welfare and self-fulfillment. Without cooperation, people can wipe out each other. Adler based his psychology on main concept of self interest.  "Adlerian psychology is a social psychology which individuals always see and understand within the social context (Hoffman, 1994, p. 67)†. Another assumption is that, human personality has guiding and unity themes. This implies that, a person is an indivisible unit and requires understanding as a total person in which the feelings, thoughts, dreams, actions and memories are even psychology leading to the same direction. Individual is a system in which the whole greater than different from the parts. Adler sees the agreement of individual in whose behavior is a consistent theme. Another assumption is that, behavior is a function of biased insight. Developing a guiding theme is a creative and an active process in which person attributes the meaning of life experiences they have faced. They constructs out this raw materials subjective to reality to which they react. It is not experiences of childhood which is important but present understanding of these events. All behaviors are determined. Adler maintained that all behaviors is focused and goal-directed, although people may not be always deliberately conscious their moti ves. If individuals have the potential they need to develop or use, they lack an action which serves the purpose. Use is more significant than control. Persons are not submissive victims of environment and heredity but energetic constructors and interpreters of their theme (Dreikurs, 1994, p. 135). Another assumption is striving for important explanation on motivation. Adler found that, due to initial helplessness, an infant experiences inferior and struggles to conquer a feeling of incompletion by determining for higher level of growth. Inferior feeling and compensation for the feeling is the dynamic motivation principle which moves an individual from one level growth to another. This striving may continue through out our life. The procedure begins in infancy as children become aware of their insufficiency, mainly when comparing with other children and adults. Infancy experience what is described by Adler as â€Å"minus situation.† The feeling of inferiority becomes a motivation for striving towards â€Å"plus situation.† Adler held that, individuals are not always directed to their dealings by realism but always by fiction. The concept of final goal by Adler which is a fictional creation, an imagined idyllic condition which directs the present individual a proc ess known as private logic as stated by Adler (Adler, 1999, p. 45). Conclusion Individuals can develop exaggerated inferiority feeling and strive towards an imagined goal of inferiority and avoiding the real test. The community feeling and the final goals of co-operation are better than the final goal which is egocentric. This would reveal power concern, self-interest, withdrawal and avoidance. According to Adler, the approach to life with individual traits, the style if life and the unique way in which each person tries to recognize their fictional final goals and meets or avoids the three main task of life; intimate relationship, community and work. In early childhood the life style is formed and in a unique and develop the same styles. Healthy persons deal with life tasks more flexible. This can find ways of solving problems and in case one is blocked, they can choose one another and the individual who is disturbed who individually insist on one way. List of References Adler, A. (1999), The individual psychology of Alfred Adler, New York: Harper Torch books Adler, A. (1964), Superiority and social interest: a collection of later writings. H. L. Ansbacher and R. R. Ansbacher (Eds.), Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press Bottome, P., (1998), Alfred Adler a biography, G. P. Putnams Sons: New York Dreikurs, R., (1994), An introduction to individual psychology, London New York: Routledge, ISBN 0415210550 Handlbauer, B. (1998), The Freud Adler controversy, Oxford, UK: One world Hoffman, E. (1994), The drive for self: Alfred Adler and the founding of individual psychology. New York: Addison-Wesley Co Slavik, S. Carlson, J. (Eds.), (2005), Readings in the theory of individual psychology, New York: Routledge Watts, R. E. (2003), Adlerian, cognitive, and constructivist therapies: An integrative dialogue, New York: Springer Way, L., (1992), Adlers place in psychology. London: Allen Unwin Way, L., (1956), Alfred Adler An Introduction to his psychology, London: Pelican

Identify the constituent parts of a total computer system :: Computer Science

Identify the constituent parts of a total computer system ========================================================= Hardware - input and output units Backup storage; central processing unit; Software - applications package; Operating system; The main function of a computer system is to process data. When data has been processed and output it becomes information. The main stages of this procedure are: 1. The Input Stage - where data is put into the computer. 2. The Processing Stage - where the data is processed. 3. The Output Stage - where the results are displayed. A computer also needs to store data for later use. This is done on a backing storage device. Hardware - input and output units INPUT DEVICES Barcode reader A barcodeBarcodes are different groups of vertical bars that can be read by an optical scanner. Barcodes are printed on nearly every product that you can buy. Shops use barcodes because they are cheap to produce and very durable. Concept keyboard A concept keyboard is a flat board that contains a grid of buttons. Each button can be programmed to follow instructions. An overlay sheet is placed on the grid with an explanation for each button. They are used in primary schools with young children. Many modern fast food restaurants have overlays with either a description or picture of the meals that are available to make ordering easier. Digital camera A digital camera allows you to take pictures and to store a digital photographic image that can be read by a computer. You can then transfer the images directly from your camera on to your computer. Digital cameras are often used by estate agents for producing advertising and sales material. Graphics tablet A graphics tabletA graphics tablet consists of a flat pad (the tablet) on which the user draws with a special pen. As the user draws on the pad the image is created on the screen. Using a graphics tablet a designer can produce very accurate on-screen drawings. MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader) Magnetic ink characters are the strange looking numbers that appear at the bottom of cheques. These characters are used because they are very difficult to forge or damage. Banks use MICR to read the numbers from the bottom of cheques to obtain data such as account numbers and bank sort codes. Magnetic strip A magnetic strip on a credit cardMagnetic strips are built into many plastic cards such as cheque guarantee cards, cash-point cards and personal identity cards. The magnetic strip on the back of the card can hold the personal details of the card owner and, with the necessary PIN, will allow access to secure information e.g. bank account details. MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) A MIDI system allows you to attach a musical instrument to your

Ken Wilber

The man who, for many years, has been acknowledged by colleagues as the leading theoretician of consciousness and transpersonal psychology, Ken Wilber, was born in 1948 in Oklahoma City, to two devoted parents. Wilber's intellect has been hailed as truly extraordinary in its penetrating, synthesizing, and discriminative capacities. His knowledge of psychology, philosophy, sociology, comparative religion, mysticism, anthropology, and even â€Å"hard† sciences such as biochemistry and physics is virtually encyclopedic, but, most importantly, he has personal experience with the states and levels of consciousness about which he writes.Although he certainly should not be viewed as only an intellectual, his affinity for the mental and spiritual realms, as opposed to the bodily and emotional realms, is clear. Likewise, although his passion is greater for transpersonal than prepersonal and personal stages of development, he has nonetheless consistently emphasized the dire need to reco gnize and embrace a full-spectrum view of consciousness and humanity's place therein.Life and Major WorksWilber grew up in Lincoln, Nebraska. His father was an air force officer. As a youth, he was absorbed in the world of natural sciences, biology, chemistry and mathematics. Referring to his late high-school and early college days, Wilber notes, â€Å"My mental youth was an idyll of precision and accuracy, a fortress of the clear and evident.† (Wilber 58) His encounter with the Tao-te-Ching changed everything: â€Å"It was as if I were being exposed, for the very first time, to an entirely new and drastically different world -a world beyond the sensical, a world outside of science, and therefore a world quite beyond myself.† (Wilber 58)From here on, the investigation of the world beyond the personal self yet accessible to human consciousness became a passion that involved not just Wilber's intellect but his entire being. Beginning in his early twenties and continuing to this day, he has taken up training in various contemplative practices such as Zen and Dzogchen (a form of Tibetan Buddhism) that would enable him to walk the terrain he charts in his writings.Wilber dropped out of graduate studies in biochemistry to devote himself fulltime to the pursuit of his research and writing about consciousness. His first major book, The Spectrum of Consciousness written in 1977, was a synthesis of Western psychological theories and therapies with Eastern spiritual disciplines. From this time onward, Wilber supported himself by his own writings, living outside of institutional affiliations and commitments, free to develop and express his own ideas, free to live a lifestyle of contemplation and writing. To balance mental and spiritual work with embodied living, he at times engaged in manual labor, such as working in gas stations (Wilber 88).Several books and over a hundred journal articles soon appeared. The Atman Project 1980 set forth a vastly expanded fr amework for human development from infancy to adulthood and beyond into transpersonal stages described by diverse contemplative disciplines. Up from Eden (1981b) presented a detailed map of the evolution of the human mind and consciousness within this framework. The popular No Boundary (1981a), explains Wilber's early ideas in a highly readable style, while some of his more technical works such as Eye to Eye: The Questfor the New Paradigm for the New Paradigm (1990a) discuss the epistemological bases of knowing in the various sciences and how these could be expanded to accommodate the fun spectrum of consciousness.Wilber's ideas, larger than life and expressed through a powerful and often sharply critical writing style, have left few readers neutral or indifferent. Over the years he has engaged in lively debates with people who have taken issue with his controversial ideas, including other prominent theorists in transpersonal psychology. Most of these debates were carried on in the pages of journals and in his most recent books. Few of his colleagues in transpersonal and consciousness studies have met him in person. To their chagrin, Wilber guards his privacy carefully and rarely makes an appearance in public.He initially accepted invitations to teach, lecture, and give interviews but then quickly pulled back from such activity, as he felt thrown off center by the attention and admiration from his audiences. Regarding this experience, Wilber said in an interview, â€Å"What you get are a lot of people telling you how great you are. Within a short time, you start believing them, and then you're headed for disaster. I simply did not feel competent to appear in public as a teacher† (Schwartz 186). Getting Wilber to agree even to an interview is not easy. Yet when he does give his time, he gives generously, and to his small circle of close friends. Wilber is known as a devoted friend who can be warm, charming, and funny (Schwartz 204).Wilber's first marriag e to his best friend Amy Wagner in 1972 lasted for nine years, after which they parted ways amicably. Two years later Wilber met and married Treya Killam. One week after the wedding, she was diagnosed with breast cancer. The next five years were spent battling a relentless cancer that eventually claimed her life. During those five years Wilber set aside most of his writing and devoted himself full-time to nurturing Treya and, eventually, to helping her to die. Grace and Grit (1991), which appeared two years after her death, provides a moving account of the emotional and spiritual struggles and transformations in both Wilber and Treya during those trying years.The long hiatus in Wilber's writing ended in 1995 with the publication of the first volume of a planned three-volume series, Sex, Ecology, and Spirituality: The Spirit of Evolution (SES) (1995b). This 800 page volume was soon followed by two shorter companion works, A Guide to Sex, Ecology, Spirituality (1995a) and A Brief Hist ory of Everything (1996). A new chapter had just begun in Wilber's writing career. Up to this point, the emphasis had been largely on the upward movement of evolution, but in SES the upward movement is balanced by the movement downward: Spirit ascending to higher unities is at the same time Spirit descending to embrace and integrate the manifold of phenomena. By Wilber's own estimation SES is his first mature work. It offers an integral vision that encompasses practically everything humans have ever sought to know or be.Wilber’s IdeasTranspersonal TheoryKen Wilber has been the most influential theorist in transpersonal psychology. Wilber's developmental model in The Atman Project has the advantage of meshing with developmental psychology and extending it to transpersonal growth. Wilber says that people move through three life stages: pre-personal, personal, and transpersonal growth. The pre-personal stage begins at birth, before a personality is developed.From birth to adoles cence the task is to build a personality. In the personal stage the individual's task is to use the personality in work, relationships, and mature life in the world. In the transpersonal stage, usually beginning in adult life, the person begins to move beyond the external world and explore the inner reaches of the self and spiritual realities. The ultimate purpose is to attain the state of oneness or unity with the consciousness of the universe. Wilber contends that the growth toward these levels of being is a natural movement of the self, an inward arc in contrast to the outward arc that relates to the external world.The Spectrum of DevelopmentDevelopment, for Wilber, extends from inanimate matter and primitive life forms through the developmental stages of human consciousness to its farthest reaches as manifested by the mystics and sages of various Eastern and Western spiritual traditions. The stages leading to mature adulthood are familiar enough. They have been charted by theori sts such as Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, Lawrence Kohlberg, and various psychoanalysts. Wilber draws especially from Piaget for the un-foldment of the cognitive and mental capacities and integrates these with the dynamic theories of object-relations psychoanalysis.Wilber identifies four transpersonal stages beyond mature adulthood: psychic, subtle, causal, and ultimate. Through these stages the sense of self or identity becomes more and more flexible and inclusive as self-centrism or narcissism continues to decrease, until at the highest stages of transpersonal development even the subtlest and most inclusive self-structurations are transcended in a sense of identity and connectedness that embraces all.At each stage things can go wrong, and so there is a spectrum of pathology corresponding to the spectrum of development all the way up to the highest transpersonal stages. Wilber discusses treatment modalities for each pathology and calls attention to the importance of correctly discern ing levels of pathology for example pre-personal or transpersonal so that appropriate treatment can be chosen. For example, he argues that meditation may not be suitable for borderline and other pre-personal pathologies, whereas for an existential depression or â€Å"dark night of the soul† that may occur in the lower transpersonal stages meditation may be a successful method of treatment.The charting of transpersonal development is undoubtedly Wilber's most controversial project. It implies that human development is open ended and that some individuals are â€Å"farther along† in development than other people, or that at any given time some people, and perhaps some cultures, have a more encompassing sense of self and a greater capacity for integrating the spectrum of consciousness than others. A number of cultural anthropologists, feminists, and ecophilosophers have criticized Wilber's theory in this regard. Certainly, the idea of development beyond â€Å"the average well-adjusted† is not new; it was celebrated in Maslow's notion of the self-actualizer. But in proposing developmental stages beyond self-actualization, Wilber is venturing into ever more rarified realms of human experience where the stakes are set high yet evidence is hard to come by.Nevertheless, it seems fair to say that Wilber's transpersonal stages have opened up the horizon far beyond anything conceived in Western scientific psychology. This horizon had been there all along, of course, and through the centuries it was explored by the mystics and seers whose anecdotal accounts, couched in religious symbolism and interpretations, only helped to shroud it in impenetrable mystery. For consciousness researchers, Wilber offers a greatly expanded paradigm of scientific inquiry. For those on a spiritual quest, he provides a map for the road.The Three Eyes of KnowingThe paradigm of consciousness research has been too narrowly modeled after the empirical sciences, argues Wilber. It can be significantly expanded once we realize that the eye of flesh, that is, our senses aided by laboratory instruments, is just one of the possible ways in which knowledge is gathered. We also have the eye of reason that understands the meaning of text, cultural symbols, and mathematical equations as well as the meaning of the data the eye of flesh observes. Beyond reason, says Wilber, there is the eye of contemplation that intuits directly the nature of reality and of the meanings deciphered by the eye of reason.The Pre/Trans FallacyAnother important concept of Wilber's that helps clear up misunderstandings regarding the transpersonal domain is what he calls the â€Å"pre/trans fallacy.† This is the failure to distinguish between primitive phenomena of early developmental stages, on the one hand, and insights and experiences that transcend the egoic mode of rational consciousness, on the other. Both types of phenomena are, in their own ways, â€Å"nonrational† an d â€Å"nonegoic,† and this is why they can appear similar or even identical. But phenomena of the first type are â€Å"prerational† or â€Å"preegoic,† whereas phenomena of the second type are â€Å"transrational† or â€Å"transegoic.†The pre/trans fallacy can occur in two ways. In the first, â€Å"trans† is reduced to â€Å"pre.† Freud's interpretation of the â€Å"oceanic feeling† associated with mystical experience as an irrational, regressive urge to return to the womb is a classic example of such a reduction. In general, the dismissal of all spiritual insights as regressive exemplifies the reductionist form of the pre/trans fallacy. In the second form of the fallacy, â€Å"pre† is elevated to â€Å"trans.† The elevationist form of the pre/trans fallacy is evident in the various ways in which prerational experience and modes of expression are promoted in the name of higher personal growth.Wilber's discussion of the pre/trans fallacy may well be one of his most useful practical contributions to the growing numbers of people searching for a spiritual path or engaging in some form of contemplative practice (Schwartz 260). Often the spiritual search masks primitive longings rooted in early developmental deprivations. On the other hand, sometimes an apparent psychotic break signals a major spiritual breakthrough. An insight into the pre/trans fallacy helps spiritual questers as well as therapists to be more discerning of the nature of the beast they are dealing with.Holism: Restoring Connectedness in the WorldIn his more recent writings, Wilber has articulated his philosophy of holism. To be truly holistic, the vision of a whole must include everything, including itself. But more important, it must integrate and connect all that it embraces. So the issue is not holism versus atomism, but fractured ness versus connectedness. Furthermore, the solution cannot be a matter of articulating the bes t and most holistic position, for this still leaves out the person proposing or accepting the position. Rather, what is required is a transformation of consciousness within the person, within all of us that shifts the viewpoint from the exterior increasingly to the interior and on to a superior view that is ever more inclusive and connected.Wilber has sounded a powerful call for us to awaken to the evolutionary process taking place within us, within the universe, not in some distant future but right now (Puhakka 152). This evolution is fundamentally open and creative and therefore, at every turn, incomplete and uncertain. We live in systems within systems, contexts within contexts, of indefinitely expanding structures of experiences, meanings, and relationships. These systems are constantly sliding and the contexts shifting, says Wilber.The vision of an open universe unfolding and enfolded upwards and downwards without end effectively removes all bases for certainty and completeness . For many people, the postmodern quicksand world spells despair and a sense of being lost in the ever-shifting contexts that claim power of determination over meaning and values and render human lives pointless and empty.The absolutizing of context is an unfortunate, even if unintended, legacy of much of postmodern thought. Wilber sees the emphasis on context as being appropriate but not going deep enough: We must recognize that the contexts themselves are shifting and evolving, along with everything else. The evolution, we are a part of excludes nothing, not even the contexts that bound our understanding and awareness. Evolution is the journey of the universe toward self-awareness, now through human consciousness that is becoming increasingly aware of its own contexts.ConclusionKen Wilber is a controversial figure among the late-twentieth-century thinkers on culture and consciousness. The evolution of consciousness is Wilber's main concern. He finds all of the major sciences, phil osophies, and spiritual traditions, both Eastern and Western, relevant to this concern, for they exemplify the process of evolution even as they shed light on it. The light is always partial, however, and how to fit the partial truths together is, for Wilber, the supreme puzzle. A superb synthesizer with ability to absorb and integrate large amounts of information across various disciplines, he sketches the contours of a panoramic vision of evolution as an unfolding of Spirit through matter, life, and mind.Works CitedEngler J. Therapeutic aims in psychotherapy and meditation: Developmental stages in the representation of self. Boston: Shambhala, 1986.Puhakka K. Restoring connectedness in the Kosmos: A healing tale of a deeper order. Humanistic Psychologist, 23 (1995): 373-391.Schwartz T. The full spectrum: Common Boundary. Los Angeles: Tarcher, 1995.Wilber K. The spectrum of consciousness. Wheaton, IL: Quest Books, 1977.Wilber K. The Atman project. Wheaton, IL: Quest Books. 1980.Wil ber K. No boundary. Boston: Shambhala, 1981.Wilber K. Odyssey. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22(1) (1982): 57-90.Wilber K. A sociable God. New York: New Press, 1983.

Fall of the House of Usher

â€Å"The Fall of the House of Usher† by Edgar Allen Poe is a story riddled with deeper meanings than the superficial plot line and analogies to draw. With the first read through, the story seems quite confusing in a sickly twisted sort of way, but upon further reading, it becomes clear that there are meanings hidden deep down in the plot. There are many comparisons that can be made in this story but the most obvious one would be the connection between the lives of the characters and the house in which they dwell.Poe does a good job at purposely confusing the reader as to whether he is talking about the literal house of Usher or the metaphorical house of Usher. The literal house is described as being in rough condition, with a crack from the top of the house to the bottom. It has tarn around the outside of it and is in a general state of disrepair. As Poe describes how the literal house of usher is nearly ready to crumble, he also speaks of the metaphorical house of Usher. The metaphorical house of usher is also ready to crumble. This is because the house of Usher was inbred, leaving all of its members except two diseased.Roderick Usher and Madeleine Usher were the only two Ushers left in the line of Ushers, and they were both very ill. Madeleine suffers from fits that render her immobile, and appearing dead. Roderick on the other hand has heightened senses and is acutely aware of every tiny last detail that is happening around him. Both Roderick and Madeleine are on the verge of death and it is only a matter of time who goes first. This can again be related to the literal house of Usher because due to the fissure running down the foundation of the house, it is only a matter of time which side collapses first.Poe does a good job at creating a sense of claustrophobia in the house by making it seem small and difficult to navigate. He also creates a sense of mental claustrophobia within the narrator by making the narrator unable to get away from the literal and figurative house of Usher. In the end of the story, when Madeleine breaks out of her tomb and kills Roderick, this is the fall of the metaphorical house of Usher, because after this point, there are no more ushers seeing as they have both died.As soon as the narrator flees the madhouse, this is the fall of the literal house of Usher. Immediately after the narrators departure from the house, the fissure from the top to the bottom of the house enlarges and the house literally collapses. It is clearly seen throughout Poe's story that both the literal and figurative houses of Usher are meant to have a nearly perfect parallel plot throughout the entire story. The literal house collapses, as does the figurative, and they both collapse in the same way.

Achieving social development in the Global South

Achieving social development in the Global South Introduction Everyday arguments are emerging on the status of the present activism. Debates on whether activists display of opinions, street rallies, sits of resistance social movements in the Global South are Via Campesina; mainly concern with matters of agriculture commonly referred to as Family Farmers International, Focus on the Global South, Peoples Global Action; movement constituting youths, Jubilee 2000; created for relieving debts, Friends of the Earth; movement for environmentalist. Theoretical approaches on social and resistance movements Rational choice theory This theory focuses on comprehending social and economic behaviour among individuals. It states that both material and none material incentives drive people to engage in mass actions. Individuals believe in the increased rewards that accompany mass action and penalise those refraining from taking part in collective actions due to lack of personal benefits. Here, free-riders would like to take advantage of the mass b ut do not take part in the mass action (Olson, 1965). In movements and advocacy organisations that are active in the Global South, millions participate with clear missions and objectives in mind. They are aware of the incentives that come with participating in these movements such as justice promotion, change and protection of their livelihoods, cultures, values, as well as community interests. Members of the Via Campesina organisation, a prominent movement in the Global South comprising of indigenous communities, rural women, small scale famers, and agricultural workers enjoy the movement’s advocacy. They enjoy the right of producing food in their own territory, protection of farmers seeds, campaigns of ending brutality against women, as well as worldwide campaign for agrarian improvement. The concept of freeriding does not directly pinpoint an individual’s mental functioning. It focuses on the different manifestations of motivation. Freeriding concept creates a logic al, reasonable, and normal person to give in to other people’s action for social advantage of both self and other parties. These clearly show people’s perception on self-satisfaction to the well-being or utility of others; thus, peolpe support such movements in order to maximise self gains first and then for society as a whole.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Achieving social development in the Global South? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Resource mobilisation theory Theorists such as McCarthy and Zald developed resource mobilisation theory in order to explain mobilisation of individuals to help achieve the goals of a movement (McCarthy and Zald, 1977). They noted that freeriding offered opportunities for people to participate in social movement as a result of motivation, cost and benefit, as well as career benefits (Gamson, 1990). Consequently, people participate in social movement for pers onal resource gains than collective goals. Marwell, and Oliver, 1992 state that resources are the catalyst for mobilisation than social protests (Marwell and Oliver, 1992). These resources include money, offices, communication equipment, volunteer time, media attention, and alliances with those in power. This theory presents participants as reasonable and only act if benefit outweighs costs (Gamson, 1990). In Latin America countries for instance, the social movements mobilise people against free trade, protection of natural resources privatisation and militarisation. Other movements e.g. those based in Middle East are against wars and demand for termination of privatisation of energy resources, and removal of foreign troops from Iraq. Majorities of these movements active in the global south call for human rights, end of violence, and torture. They are also against all forms of racism, homophobic violence, and tirelessly put on permanent fight for feminist struggle for equality. In p ursuit of resource mobilisation, these social movements have successfully managed to protect the small farmers and peasant through rejecting the sale of seeds to large-scale farmers as well as opposing the use of seeds created with terminator technology. They also advocate tirelessly for the public right to education financed through the state. Social movements Habermas observes that social movements depend on socially unaccepted and radical movement methods in enhancing self-reliance and self-determination. Still, they have varieties of unrecognised networks (Habermas, 1990). In other words, they lack centralisation (Rutch, 1998; Melucci, 1996). Social movements rise due to the need of realising changes, promote consciousness among members of society, reinforce identity, and change social relationship in society. Social movements exist as part of community structures, as procedures, practices and strategies to transform community relations and behaviour patterns in order to enhance growth, resources allocation, redistribution, and control of social power and community statuses and resources. Thus, social movements exist as a collective bargaining tool that strives at enhancing a noble cause or creating a social change in society. Researchers who have dwelt on New Social Movements concur that social movement originates out of the desire to challenge and provide alternative to inactive labour movements (Rutch, 1998; Melucci, 1996, Habermas, 1990).Advertising Looking for research paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Social movement concerns itself with emerging challenges in society, such as protests about consequences of capitalism, environmental degradation, social injustices and advocacy for the rights of women and children. Many authors believe that social movements change materialism and shift between left and right (Rutch, 1998; Melucci, 1996, Habermas, 1990). This is the notion of value shift hypothesis. The current views of value shift hypothesis concentrate on modern models of society such as the post-development society, information age society, and advanced capitalism among others. Elements of social changes such as social, economical, and political, are what theorists use in explaining the concept of value shift hypothesis. These factors change society over a period of time (Inglehart, 1990). The approach of social movement theories from Marxist point of view reveals that social actions emanated from economic changes of the capitalist exploitation and class reductionism. This implie s that creation of class system has it origin in the process of production that views most participants as a part of social movements and economic protests. These are marginalised workers with a collective action but not a part of revolutions. There is a paradigm shift to emerging trends whereby the new social movements highlight new political, ideological, cultural, identity developments as a basis of collective actions. Strategies in advocacy We can refer to strategies in advocacy as long-term, multi-featured approach that mainly cover different and diverse tactics that advocates or activists consider suitable in a context for achieving a given resource, objectives, social and economic transformation. Moyer notes that several activists prefer focusing mainly on tactics that may not help them achieve their goals (Moyer, 1990). He further argues that tactics methods apply the use of normal media system. These activists do this hoping the media channels will air their concerns to rel evant authorities. Consequently, preferred solutions and actions or policy changes occur. However, these approaches have proved ineffective in fighting for social changes. As a result of this, many strategies have emerged to support social movements and advocacy. The traditional models and strategies of advocacy came in two forms. These included self advocacy and one to one advocacy. They were all equal in value and served specific needs (Moyer et al, 2001). Advocacy is a change process that promotes interests of clients, cases, or a community, or a cause or ideal that involves directed, purposive, and intentional change. Advocacy change strategies can vary widely, from direct social action and political action through education and consciousness raising. Hardcastle notes that advocacy and social action are strategies for achieving a given goal (Hardcastle, 2011). Progressive professionals such as Via Campesina, the Focus on Global South, Centre for Third World Organisation, Jubilee 2000, and other concerned citizens use social movement strategies in order to change the status quo. Advocacy can be micro, such as self and individual, client and case, and group advocacy, or macro, concerned with institutional and social cause advocacy. Cause or class advocacy is a form of social action and may be a part of a social movement. These concepts (cause or class advocacy) are the same. There are varieties of techniques used by social workers engaged in advocacy and social reform. In addition, the new communication and information technologies greatly expand the audience for and participants engaged in advocacy. The main difference is that case or individual advocacy, while often leading to larger social action, have individual approach rather than intentionally seeking larger social change. The old approaches in advocacy included group collective advocacy, issue-based advocacy and self advocacy. There are also certain forms of advocacy, such as peer advocacy in which a ll participants share same values and experiences, citizen advocacy whereby members struggle for the rights and privileges of the marginalised people. We also have non-instructed advocacy in which people are free to express their opinions. However, some forms of advocacy have also come up. These may include advocacy through legal experts, religious bodies, workers unions, self-help group, and virtual advocacy among others. These groups are not radical in their approaches and have not fully embraced the title of advocacy. Group advocacy as a strategy in advocacy may originate from other approaches such as case advocacy. Group advocacy is mainly part of a large fight, or a proceeding a social or community movement. Group advocacy is useful in aiding the community acquire awareness and knowledge and skills for self and community struggles for social justice. It is necessary to note that a group advocacy may start with an individual and gradually grows to include other members of the so ciety. For example, Via Campesina advocates for the Global South farmers as individuals. However, it ends up fighting for land rights of the entire community as is the case today where land-grabbing advocacy covers several countries of the Global South such Congo, Brazil, Italy, Indonesia, and Mozambique among others. Occasionally, advocates operate on behalf of scattered individuals who have never met. This is the macro advocacy modalities. In either case, the advocate must get to know each individual, and members of the group, articulate the group situations as the process proceeds, and must be accountable to them. In these cases, most members cannot easily air their grievances. Thus, the advocate has to work through ethical and authority issues. Advocates who represent groups with inarticulate and passive members must consider all the various sub-interests within the group. Otherwise, only members who are present and articulate their issues will succeed. When members of the Globa l South want to fight discrimination, land rights or economic hardship, the practitioner-advocate must fully inform the group of any potential risks, and then encourage the group’s self-determination and follow its lead. This is the best method to advocacy where masses participate. Community advocacy can take many forms and bridge the gap that exists between the micro and macro advocacy approaches. Community advocacy strategy needs community consciousness awareness and public education regarding methods of challenging unfavourable conditions. Most community advocacies occur as a result of demoralising conditions, conditions that cause marginalisation, anger or harm a section or the entire community. Firstly, the advocate might organise activities that enhance or sustain the quality and welfare of the community. Emerging towns in the Global South surrounded by farms or ranches can have street festivals or fairs that attempt to promote social inclusion among them. These occasio ns provide opportunities for enhance their social developments and solve their problems. Secondly, community advocacy often involves efforts to maintain the status quo for a community resisting the waves of modernity. In some areas, there is advocacy for zoning ordinances, for restrictions on development. For instance, Via Campesina has been resisting the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD). It argues that the programme does not â€Å"significantly reduce the emission of greenhouse gases, although it does open the door to the privatization of land, and also rewards polluters, and threatens national sovereignty and the survival of indigenous communities† (Angus, 2010). Thirdly, advocates may demand public access to resources. This is the case in which Via Campesina has noted that peasants are losing their access to land and other natural resources to capitalists. Thus, the organisation is advocating for protection of peasantry. Fourthly, advocat es strive to become accountable to the community. Social movements want to account for inequality such as land rights, gender, and food scarcity that exist in society. Successful social movements result in social inclusion that provides community citizens with justice and dignity. Political leaders and elected city officials and managers can serve as, and often are, community advocates. Virtual advocacy, or more accurately the use of the Internet to advocate, is a widespread and growing phenomenon among social movement groups. Advocacy groups such as the Focus on Global South, Via Campesina and Jubilee 2000, among others can rally their supporters to e-mail political policymakers and provide the supporters with links to the decision makers’ e-mail boxes. This strategy has worked well for MoveOn.org for what it labels virtual marches on Washington and Wall Street, as well as massive e-mail campaigns. Virtual advocacy involves the use of blogs for posting any cause, issue, or c andidate. Hardcastle notes that people can use blogs for public education, persuasion, social marketing, developing virtual networks and mailing lists, and rallying and communicating with supporters. Other authors observe that people can widely use blogs in political campaigns to generate money and voter support. When combined with Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, and the other networking sites, virtual advocacy has the potential to be powerful (Hardcastle, 2011). The challenge is to break through the clutter and not become spam or end up at the bottom of the list of sites. This will require a hit strategy and links with a variety of other sites. Hardcastle points out that virtual advocacy have not been rigorously evaluated (Hardcastle, 2011). Social movement groups and politicians have extensively used virtual advocacy for various purposes. In any case, as with the other components of community practice, it is a crucial skill for advocacy. Butcher notes that the strategy of internal cha nge in society enhances authority and effectiveness for new social movements (Butcher, 2007). Conversely, trends and elements like bribery and self-interest in social movements may inhibit participation of people in advocacy. Thus, the main purpose of social action is raising awareness of issues to provide opportunities for action systems (Butcher, 2007). As per Gamson, there are mainly three collective action models that enhance social action (Gamson, 1990). These include injustice, political process and collective action in society. Advocates use these frames or mode as a basis of justification for their social actions. He further notes that injustice element in society consists of moral unfairness that happens mainly in political situations. He observes that most agencies believe in taking action through a collective social action. Thus, the main reason for advocacy is to counteract unfavourable social changes in society (Hardcastle, 2011). Studies in collective social action sho w that social actions vital concern is to hold people who have power accountable (Hardcastle, 2011). The belief is that social movements enhance insurgency, reform movements, and reforms. They know that modern social actions rely on modern forms of communication such as the Internet and, social media platforms, as well as other methods of campaigning aimed at achieving the desired reforms. This differs with traditional forms of advocacy where limited availability of resources and technology negatively influenced their efforts. Advocates use social action globally with strategies of demonstrations and protests for various reasons. For instance, in Africa and other parts of the Global South, farmers have demonstrated against land-grabbing using social action for fighting for land rights whereas in developed nations, social movements have condemned unfavourable corporate and political globalisation actions. We can see the use of social actions on the streets, media, and Internet among other channels. These approaches function best to enhance social changes and incremental reforms necessary in society (Hardcastle, 2011). The social changes aim at redistributing community resources and social power among the masses. This redistribution of resources has promoted developments in post apartheid South Africa particularly in low income areas. Systems Advocacy and Change Individual, state, national and regional economic investment and boycotts are effective tools for system change. For example, making socially responsible domestic investments or conducting boycotts can help develop grassroots, community-oriented, and self-help organizations. System changes approaches through using various means such as mass protests, strikes, and demonstrations proved effective in the Civil Rights struggle of Americans in the 1960s, and war against apartheid in South African and now in most countries of the Global South. Organisations such as Jubilee 2000, Via Campesina and others have a ttempted on several occasions change the world at various levels such as communities, national and international levels by transforming various societal systems, such as the economic system, the patriarchal family system, and gender roles. These attempts indicate that society desires such changes. However, main challenges to the social order take longer than expected. Individual advocates are crucial in social movements for change. Some of the prominent figures who have achieved social changes through advocacy include Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Nelson Mandela among others. Today, people enjoy the sacrifices such leaders made in the past to enhance social equalities. Goodwyn captures what is fundamental about social movements and change endeavours to the people who are part of them (Goodwyn, 1978). Goodwyn refers to populism as a source of self-worth and self-education in social movements. These words describe the aims of many of today’s movements and embryo political par ties. Today’s protestors resist the latest version of a giant industrial engine (capitalism and its consequences). Globalisation and extreme poverty have become part of the public debate because of the insistence of advocates for systems change. These are some of the aspects (negative aspects of globalisation) that global social movements have tried to resist. Large-scale social movements and quests for changes often have scopes of reaching into community advocacy, political advocacy, and systems change. Womens social movements and quests for equal opportunities in societies are excellent cases of large-scales social movements. Women have attempted several approaches to achieve equal representation but with minimal results. They then turned back to their communities and outward to larger systems, seeking other types of equality in terms of jobs, education, insurance rates, and even public sanction regarding the sharing of domestic chores. Most social movements have made funda mental gains in some areas such as respect for human rights, equal opportunities and representation, there are still existing setbacks in communities. These setbacks stem from institutions, and other forms of emerging social trends. The gains made are uneven. However, progress continues. Social movements have resulted into situations whereby we have ethnic minorities, women, and gays in public offices. Why advocacy may fail Research works indicate that advocates who mainly use tactics, such as relying on the media to air the grievances and individual approaches rarely get their desired outcomes or goals (Moyer, 2009; Hardcastle, 2011). The main reason why advocacy may fail is the lack of sufficient information. Thus, it is necessary for advocates to have sufficient information to support a campaign agenda. In addition, advocates must have the necessary advocacy skills and practical knowledge for effective campaign management. Lack of interpersonal relationship skills may also affect the outcome of social movement (Shields, 2009). Advocacy may also not succeed due opponents’ propaganda, deceptions, and bribes. There are cases where advocates may have vested interest and negatively affect the outcome of a movement. Bribes usually inhibit the ability or desire to acts among the advocates (Freddolino and Moxley, 1994). The social and labour movements of the 1960s did not create a base of individuals with the wide range of interests, and achieve results beyond the local level. Instead, these movements put their efforts on issues people could easily defend without support. At the same time, majorities of the leaders did not pay attention to main issues their constituents experienced. Advocacy may also fail due to lack of progressive strategies. This is mainly due to lack of necessary skills in the dynamic field of social issues. Advocates should learn from past experiences and take lessons from previous actions. Scholars also note that some social movements f ail to address ideologies (Freddolino and Moxley, 1994). The inability to focus on necessary issues have affected rendered some social movement organisation irrelevant. These factors undermine initiation of any movement to create a change in society because of disfranchised communities. This means that modern forms of advocacy rely on issues rather than the use of traditional approaches to advocacy. Effectiveness of organisations advocating for communities Organisations advocating for communities have played a critical role in bringing changes to the lives of individuals in the Global South as compared to individual advocacy. In the global south, Via Campesina, an international organisation has fought endlessly for the protection of peasant farmers through protecting the native seed and objecting the sale and use of seeds created harmful technology. Conclusion This work shows that advocacy trends have undergone significant changes, and new methods of advocacies, such as virtual advo cacy, and systems changes among others are evolving. However, action-charged tactics that characterised old advocacies strategies are losing sense of relevant in modern society. Activists are relying on social networks, new knowledge and skills, and modern advocacy strategies to induce social changes. However, traditional forms of advocacies are the foundation of modern advocacy strategies. Social changes achieved through advocacy takes time with regard to prevailing political, socioeconomic, and cultural consequences of changes in the community. Impacts of such changes determine how advocacy and social movements for change manifest themselves and the subsequent reactions for achieving the preferred changes in society. Scholars’ review of youth empowerment programmes concluded that uniting youths to work together in social action is an essential component of community building, and addressed skills in development at both the individual and group levels (Hardcastle, 2011). Eng aging in community organising and critically examining community issues provide young people with the experience, self-efficacy, and social connections to continue to work for community-based change. There are also other radical strategies such as structural and system change advocacy. Habermas notes that structural and system changes advocacy are fundamental with regard to terms of ends sought, ideologically driven and revolutionary than others forms of advocacies, which focus on an individual’s rights and interests (Habermas, 1990). It can be promoted by either the political left or going on to provide for adequate facilities for the entire community. Many systems affect individuals and society in general, and advocacy systems want to be able to influence them. Those who would transform themselves and their environment must be able to construct a vision and convince policymakers on how the community can be. Transformative structural and systems change results in profound al teration or revitalisation of society. However, these are systematic changes that must take time to have significant consequences on the masses. Societies can change peacefully or violently though with slow steps towards their goals. We have witnessed how the American civil rights movement transformed American society. We could not imagine a black president in the US or a woman president in Africa in the 1960s. Some forms of these transformations were not imaginable in the 1960s. However, today, they have become reality due to the civil right movements, social changes and advocacy strategies. This demonstrates that strong forms of advocacies are fundamental tools in fighting for the rights of community in order to enhance development. Manifestations of changes achieved through modern forms of advocacies make members of marginal and invisible groups more central and visible, address social isolation and disenfranchisement, link individuals to social resources, and contribute to their social capital, and promote empowerment, confidence, and optimism. Reference List Angus, I 2010, La Và ­a Campesina: Foil the carbon market plan, https://climateandcapitalism.com/2010/12/06/la-via-campesina-foil-the-carbon-market-plan/ Butcher, H 2007, Critical community practice, The Policy Press Bristol, UK. Freddolino, P and Moxley, D 1994, A differential model of advocacy in social work practice, Basic Books, New York. Gamson, W 1990, The strategy of social protest, Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. Goodwyn, L 1978, The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America, Oxford University Press, Cambridge. Habermas, J 1990, Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. Hardcastle, D 2011 Community Practice: Theories and Skills for Social Workers, 3rd ed, Oxford University Press, Inc, New York. Inglehart, R 1990, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society, Princeton University Press, Princeton. Marwell, G and Oliver, P 1992, Resource Mobilisati on Theory and the Study of Social Movements, Routledge, New York. McCarthy, DJ and Zald, NM 1977, ‘Resource Mobilization and Social Movements: A Partial Theory’, American Journal of Sociology, vol. 82, pp. 1212-1241. Melucci, A 1996, Challenging Codes: Collective Action in the Information Age, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Moyer, B 1990, The Practical Strategist: Movement Action Plan (MAP) Strategic Theories for Evaluating, Planning and Conducting Social Movements, Social Movement Empowerment Project, San Francisco. Moyer, B, McAllister, J, Finley, M, and Soifer, S 2001, Doing democracy: The map model for organizing social movements, New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, BC. Olson, M 1965, The Logic of Collective Action, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Rutch, D 1998, The Strategies and Action Repertoires of New Social Movements, Polity Press, Cambridge. Shields, J 2009, Development of the Policy Advocacy Behavior Scale, Sage Publications, Thousand O aks.

Single Variable Equations in Algebra ACT Math Strategies

Single Variable Equations in Algebra ACT Math Strategies SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Single variable equations are some of the most common types of problems on the ACT math section. You must know how to set up, use, and manipulate these kinds of equations, as they are a foundational element of mathematics upon which more complicated expressions (multiple variable, quadratics, etc.) are based. So make sure you are prepared to tackle the ins and outs of single variable equations (no matter how they are presented on the ACT), before you take on some of the more complicated elements of ACT math. This guide will be your complete walk-through of single variable equations for the ACTwhat they are, how you’ll see them on the test, and how to set up and solve them. And the mystery unfolds. What Are Single Variable Equations? To understand a single variable equation, let us break it into its two components: the variable and the equation. A variable is a symbolic placeholder for a number we do not yet know. It’s very common to see $x$ or $y$ used as a variable in math problems, but variables can be represented by any symbol or letter. $x + 4 = 14$ In this case, $x$ is our variable. It represents a number that is currently unknown. An equation sets two mathematical expressions equal to one another. This equality is represented with an equals sign (=) and each side of the expression can be as simple as a single integer or as complex as an expression with multiple variables, exponents, or anything else. $({x +y^2})/14 - 65(x - 3) = 2$ The above is an example of an equation. Each side of the expression equals the other. So if we put together our definitions, we know that: A single variable equation is an equation in which there is only one variable used. (Note: the variable can be used multiple times and/or used on either side of the equation; all that matters is that the variable remains the same.) ${(x + 4)}/2 = 12$ $6x + 3 - 2x = 19$ $4y - 2 = y + 7$ These are all examples of single variable equations. You can see how some expressions used the variable multiple times or used the variable in both expressions (on either side of the equals sign). No matter how many times the variable is used, these still count as single variable problems because the variable remains constant and there are no other variables. Finding your missing variable is like finding that last missing piece of the puzzle. Typical Single Variable Equations on the ACT Single variable equations will fall into two broad categories on the ACTgiven equations and word problems. Let’s look at each type. Given Equations A given equation will provide you with the equation you need to use to solve the problem. We will go through the exact processes needed to solve this kind of problem in the next section, but for now just understand that your goal is to isolate your variable. (We will go through how to solve this question later in the guide) As you can see from this problem, the isolated variable may not be your final answer. Sometimes the question will ask you to solve for $x$, sometimes the question will ask you to solve for $x$ to a different term (as in this case, where they ask you to find $2x$). Always pay close attention to exactly what the question is asking you to find! You need to first isolate your $x$ to solve the problem, but if you stop there then you will get the final answer wrong. Word Problems A word problem describes a scene in which you must set up your own single variable equation to solve it. Again, your final answer may be the value of your variable ($x$ or $y$, etc.) or your variable taken to a different term ($2x$, $y/2$, etc.). (We will go through how to solve this question later in the guide) How to Manipulate a Single Variable Equation In order to solve a single variable equation, we must isolate our variable on one side of the equation. And the way we do this is by shifting the rest of our terms to the other side of the equation. In order to shift our terms (numbers), we must therefore cancel them out on their original side by performing the opposite function of the term. Opposite function pairs are: Addition and subtraction Multiplication and division So if we have a term on one side that has a plus sign (addition), we must subtract that same amount from both sides. $x + 2 = 6$ $x + 2 - 2 = 6 - 2$ $x = 4$ If we have a term that is multiplied, we must divide that same amount from both sides. $3x = 18$ ${3x}/3 = 18/3$ $x = 6$ And so on. Whatever you do on one side of the equation, you must do on the other. This cancels out like terms and essentially moves your terms from one side of the equation to the other. Single variable equations are all about maintaining balance. Steps to Solving a Single Variable Problem Let us take a typical variable expression and break it into the steps needed to solve it. $3y - 10 + 2y = 15$. Find $y$. 1) Combine like terms If there is more than one term with a same variable, we must combine them in order to ultimately isolate that variable. We can add or subtract terms with a same variable in the same way we can any other numbers. $3y - 10 + 2y = 15$ Here we have a $3y$ and a $2y$. They are both positive, so we add them together. $3y + 2y = 5y$ So now our equation looks like this: $5y - 10 = 15$ 2) Isolate the term with your variable Once we have combined our variables, we must isolate the variable term. If the term is simply the variable itself (e.g. $y$), then we can skip this step. But since our term her is $5y$, we must isolate the whole term first. $5y - 10 = 15$ So we must add 10 to either side of our equation. Why? Because we have a negative 10 and addition is the opposite of subtraction. And we must do it to either side to cancel out the 10 on the first expression in order to isolate our variable. $5y - 10 + 10 = 15 + 10$ $5y = 25$ 3) Isolate your variable Now that we’ve isolated our term ($5y$), we can further isolate the variable itself. Again, we perform an opposite function of the term. In this case, we have $5y$, which uses multiplication. In order to isolate the variable, we must therefore use division (the opposite of multiplication) by dividing on both sides. $5y = 25$ ${5y}/5 = 25/5$ $y = 5$ 4) Double-check your variable by plugging it back in Now that we’ve solved for our variable, let us check to make sure it is correct by plugging it back into the original equation. $y = 5$ $3y - 10 + 2y = 15$ $3(5) - 10 + 2(5) = 15$ $15 - 10 + 10 = 15$ $15 = 15$ Success! We have correctly isolated the variable and found its value. 5) And, finally, double-check to make sure you are answering the right question! In this case, we are done, because our initial question asked us to find the value of $y$. But you must always double-check to make sure you are answering the right question. If they had asked us the value for $5y$ or $y/3$, then we would have gotten the answer wrong if we had stopped here at $y = 5$. Always double-check that your variable is correct and that you are answering the question the test is asking you to answer. Now let’s try it again with our problem from earlier: We have $7 + 3x = 22$ and we must isolate our variable in order to ultimately find $2x$ Step 1, combine like terms: There are no like terms to combine, so we can skip step 1. Step 2, isolate variable term: $7 + 3x = 22$ $7 - 7 + 3x = 22 - 7$ $3x = 15$ Step 3, isolate variable: $3x = 15$ ${3x}/3 = 15/3$ $x = 5$ Step 4, double-check answer: $7 + 3(5) = 22$ $7 + 15 = 22$ $22 = 22$ Success. But wait! We’re not done just yet. Step 5, look at what the final question is asking: We must finish the question by finding $2x$ $x = 5$ $2(5) = 10$ So our final answer is G, $2x = 10$ It may appearthatperforming a single variable equation requires a lot of steps, but the more you practice, the easier and more instinctive this process will become. Test Your Knowledge 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Answers:C, G, B, G, E Answer Explanations: 1) Ms. Lewis begins by driving 900 miles at 50 miles per hour and we want to find out how much faster she must go to travel the same amount of miles in three hours less time. Because she is driving the same amount, we can set these terms equal. We are also only working with the variable of miles per hour, so this is a single variable equation. Now, the two sides of the equation are dealing with miles and miles per hour. The first half of our equation will look like this: $(900/50) - 3$ Why? Because Ms. Lewis is driving 900 miles at 50 miles per hour, so we need to divide the miles by mph in order to find out her travel time. And then we must reduce that amount by 3 because we are told that her new travel time will be 3 miles less than that. This means that the other half of our equation will look like this: $900/x$ Why? Because we know that the number of miles she drives will be the same, but our unknown is her miles per hour. Now let's put them together and solve for our variable. $(900/50) - 3 = 900/x$ $18 - 3 = 900/x$ $15 = 900/x$ Now we must isolate our $x$ value. Because it is acting as a denominator, we must multiply both sides of the equation by $x$. $x * 15 = (900/x) * x$ $15x = 900$ Now, we can divide both sides by 15 in order to isolate our $x$ value. $15x = 900$ ${15x}/15 = 900/15$ $x = 60$ Finally, let us plug this value back into our original equation to double-check our answer. $(900/50) - 3 = 900/x$ $(900/50) - 3 = 900/60$ $15 = 15$ We have successfully found our $x$ value, which is the new mileage per hour that Ms. Lewis must travel. But wait, we're not done yet! The question asked us to find out how much faster she must drive, not the new miles per hour at which she must travel. This means we must take the difference of the original miles per hour and the new miles per hour. $60 - 50 = 10$ She must drive 10 miles per hour faster in order to drive the same amount in three hours less time. So our final answer is C, 10. 2) Here we have two cable companies and we are told that we must solve for when their rates are equal after an equal number of months. That means we have a single variable (the number of months) and we have an equation because we are setting each side equal (since the question specifies that their prices will be equal after an unknown number of months). Uptown Cable has a flat fee of 120 dollars and an additional fee of 25 dollars per month. The flat fee will be unchanged (it only happens once), but the 25 dollars will be affected by the number of months. Since the number of months is our unknown variable, let’s give it a value of $x$. So our first expression will look like this: $120 + 25x$ Now Downtown Cable has a 60 dollar flat fee (occurs only once) and a 35 dollar per month fee. We are trying the find the equal number of months for a Downtown Cable package and an Uptown Cable package, so our variable, $x$, will remain the same. So our second expression will look like this: $60 + 35x$ Now we set the two expressions equal to one another. (Why? Because we are told that the prices will be equal after a certain number of months.) $120 + 25x = 60 + 35x$ Now we solve by shifting the terms on each side of the equation. First, let us combine our variable terms by subtracting 25x from each side. $120 + 25x - 25x = 60 + 35x - 25x$ $120 = 60 + 10x$ Now, let us subtract 60 from each side. $120 - 60 = 60 - 60 + 10x$ $60 = 10x$ And finally, let us isolate our variable. $60/10 = {10x}/10$ $6 = x$ So our final answer is G, in exactly 6 months, the prices of each cable package will be equal. 3) This question relies on manipulating fractions. If this process is unfamiliar to you, definitely check out our guide to ACT fractions and ratios. If this is familiar to you, then let’s keep going. ${1/3}k + {1/4}k =1$ We must find a common denominator of the two fractions in order to combine our like terms. In this case, the least common factor of 3 and 4 is 12. (For more on this process, check out our guide to ACT fractions and ratios.) ${4/12}k + {3/12}k = 1$ ${7/12}k = 1$ Now we have a number (7) being divided by another number (12). We know that division is the opposite of multiplication, so we must multiply each side by 12. $12 * {7/12}k = 1 * 12$ $7k = 12$ And finally, we must divide each side by 7 to isolate our variable. $7k = 12$ ${7k}/7 = 12/7$ $k = 12/7$ So our final answer is B, $12/7$ 4) We have a consultant with a flat (one time) fee of 30 dollars and an additional fee of 45 dollars per hour. Because the 45 dollars is hourly, it changes based on our variable (the number of hours). We do not know the number of hours she works, but we do know that her final earnings were 210 dollars. So let’s set this up as an equation. $30 + 45x = 210$ There are no like terms, so we can start isolating our variable. $30 - 30 + 45x = 210 - 30$ $45x = 180$ ${45x}/45 = 180/45$ $x = 4$ So our final answer is G, she worked 4 hours to earn 210 dollars. 5) This is a single variable problem that can be solved in one of two waysyou can either distribute first and then solve, or you can solve without the need to distribute. We’ll go through both ways here. Solve with distributing: $9(x - 9) = -11$ First, distribute your 9 across the expression $(x - 9)$ $9(x) - 9(9) = -11$ $9x - 81 = -11$ Now, isolate your variable term as usual. $9x - 81 + 81 = -11 + 81$ $9x = 70$ And finally, isolate your variable. $9x = 70$ ${9x}/9 = 70/9$ So our final answer is E, 70/9. Alternatively, you can solve this problem without the need to distribute your 9 across the expression (x - 9) Solve without distributing: $9(x - 9) = -11$ Divide each side by 9 ${9(x - 9)}/9 = -11/9$ $x - 9 = -11/9$ Now, we must add 9 to each side. $x - 9 + 9 = -11/9 + 9$ $x = -11/9 + 9$ In order to add $-11/9$ and 9, we must give them a common denominator. Again, check out the guide on fractions and ratiosif this process is unfamiliar to you. $x = -11/9 + 9/1(9/9)$ $x = -11/9 + 81/9$ $x = 70/9$ So again, our answer is E, 70/9. Phew! I think this calls for dessert. The Take-Aways Single variations make up the backbone of many other ACT problems. By knowing how to manipulate these kinds of expressions, you’ll be able to build on these techniques to solve much more complex problems and equations. Just remember to always perform the same act to each side of the equation and save isolating your variable for last. Now take your single variable knowledge and conquer the rest of our math guides. You’ve got this. What’s Next? You’ve build up your mathematical foundation and now you’re raring to take on more. Before you start in on another guide to an ACT math topic, make sure you have a good idea of all the topics covered on the ACT math. Think you might need a tutor? Check out the best ways to shop around for a tutor whosuits your needs, whether online or in person. Taken a practice test and don’t know how you match up for schools? Make sure you have a good idea of what your ideal score truly is. And if you feel like you’ve got a handle on the math itself, but struggle with the timing, then be sure to check out on our article on how to stop running out of time on the ACT. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points? Check out our best-in-class online ACT prep program. We guarantee your money back if you don't improve your ACT score by 4 points or more. Our program is entirely online, and it customizes what you study to your strengths and weaknesses. If you liked this Math lesson, you'll love our program.Along with more detailed lessons, you'll get thousands ofpractice problems organized by individual skills so you learn most effectively. We'll also give you a step-by-step program to follow so you'll never be confused about what to study next. Check out our 5-day free trial:

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